Allah
Allah
This article is about the Arabic word "Allah". For the Islamic view of God, see God in Islam. For other uses, see Allah (disambiguation).
The word 'Allah' in Arabic calligraphy
Allah (/ËÃĻl.lÉ, ËÉËl.lÉ, ÉËl.lÉË/;[1][2] Arabic: اŲŲŲ, romanized: AllÄh, IPA: [ĘaÉĢ.ÉĢaËh] (
listen)) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam.[3][4][5] The word is thought to be derived by contraction from al-ilÄh, which means "the god", and is linguistically related to the Aramaic words Elah and ÜܲÜ ܵÜܵÜ (ĘŧAlÃĸhÃĸ) and the Hebrew word El (Elohim) for God.[6][7]The word Allah has been used by Arabic people of different religions since pre-Islamic times.[8] The pre-Islamic Arabs worshipped a supreme deity whom they called Allah, alongside other lesser deities.[9] Muhammad used the word Allah to indicate the Islamic conception of God. Allah has been used as a term for God by Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) and even Arab Christians[10] after the term "al-ilÄh" and "Allah" were used interchangeably in Classical Arabic by the majority of Arabs who had become Muslims. It is also often, albeit not exclusively, used in this way by BÃĄbists, BahÃĄĘŧÃs, Mandaeans, Indonesian and Maltese Christians, and Sephardi Jews.[11][12][13][14] Similar usage by Christians and Sikhs in West Malaysia has recently led to political and legal controversies.[15][16][17][18]
Contents
1Etymology
2Usage
2.1Pre-Islamic Arabians
2.2Christianity
2.3Islam
3Pronunciation
4As a loanword
4.1English and other European languages
4.2Malaysian and Indonesian language
5National flags with "Allah" written on them
6Typography
6.1Unicode
7See also
8Further reading
8.1Online
9Citations
10General references
11External links
Etymology
The Arabic components that make up the word "Allah":
alif
hamzat waášŖl (ŲŲ Ø˛ØŠ ŲØĩŲ)
lÄm
lÄm
shadda (شد؊)
dagger alif (ØŖŲŲ ØŽŲØŦØąŲØŠ)
hÄĘž
The etymology of the word AllÄh has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists.[19] Grammarians of the Basra school regarded it as either formed "spontaneously" (murtajal) or as the definite form of lÄh (from the verbal root lyh with the meaning of "lofty" or "hidden").[19] Others held that it was borrowed from Syriac or Hebrew, but most considered it to be derived from a contraction of the Arabic definite article al- "the" and ilÄh "deity, god" to al-lÄh meaning "the deity", or "the God".[19] The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the latter theory, and view the loanword hypothesis with skepticism.[20]
Cognates of the name "AllÄh" exist in other Semitic languages, including Hebrew and Aramaic.[21] The corresponding Aramaic form is Elah (×××), but its emphatic state is Elaha (××××). It is written as ÜÜ ÜÜ (ĘŧÄlÄhÄ) in Biblical Aramaic and ÜܲÜ ܵÜܵÜ (ĘŧAlÃĸhÃĸ) in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church, both meaning simply "God".[22] Biblical Hebrew mostly uses the plural (but functional singular) form Elohim (×××××), but more rarely it also uses the singular form Eloah (××××ּ).[citation needed]
Usage
Pre-Islamic Arabians
See also: Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia
Deities of the ancient Near East
hide
Ancient Egyptian
Amun
Anubis
Apis
Atum
Buchis
Geb
Horus
Isis
Montu
Nephthys
Nut
Osiris
Ptah
Qetesh
Ra
Set
Shu
Tefnut
Thoth
hide
Arabian
Allah
Aglibol
Abgal
al-Lat
al-Qaum
al-‘UzzÃĄ
Atarsamain
Athtar
Baalshamin
BÄl
Dhul Khalasa
Dushara
Gad
Hubal
Malakbel
Manaf
ManÄt
Nasr
Nuha
Orotalt
Ruda
Suwa'
Theandrios
Wadd
Ya'uq
YaghÅĢth
Yarhibol
Yatha
hide
Eblaite and Syrian
Adamma
AÅĄtabil
Belet Ekallim
Belet Nagar
Dagan
Hadabal
Haddu of Halab
Hebat
Ishtar
Ishara
Kubaba
Kura
Ninkarrak
Saggar
Shalash
Wer
hide
Elamite
Humban
Inshushinak
Ishmekarab
Jabru
Kiririsha
Lagamar
Manzat
Nahundi
Narundi
Napir
Napirisha
Pinikir
Ruhurater
Simut
hide
Hurrian
Allani
AÅĄtabi
Hayya
Hepat
Hutena and Hutellura
Ishara
Kubaba
Kumarbi
KuÅĄuá¸Ģ
Lelluri
Mitanni deities (Indra, Mitra, Varuna)
Ninatta and Kulitta
Nupatik
Pirengir
Shalash
Å arruma
Å auÅĄka
Å imige
Å uwala
Teshub
Tilla
hide
Levantine (Canaanite and Ugaritic)
Adonis
Anat
Arsay
Arsu
Ashima
Ashtart/Astarte
Atargatis
Athirat
Attar
Azizos
Baalat Gebal
Baal
Baal Hammon
Chemosh
El
Eshmun
Kotharat
Kothar-wa-Khasis
Marqod
Melqart
Milcom
Misor
Mot
Nikkal
Qos
Resheph
Shadrafa
Shahar
Shalim
Shapash
Sydyk
Tanit
Yam
Yahweh
Yarikh
hide
Mesopotamian
Adad/Ishkur
Amurru
An/Anu
Asarluhi
Ashur
Aya
Dumuzi
Enki/Ea
Enlil
Ereshkigal
Gibil
Inanna/Ishtar
Ishtaran
Manungal
Marduk
Nabu
Nammu
Nanaya
Nisaba
Shala
Å umugan
Nanna/Sin
Nergal
Ninazu
Ninegal
Ningal
Ningishzida
Ninhursag
Ninisina
Ninlil
Ninshubur
Pabilsag
Papsukkal
Sarpanit
Sebitti
Tishpak
Utu/Shamash
Zababa
Religions of the ancient Near East
v
t
e
Regional variants of the word Allah occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions.[8][23] Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic polytheistic cults. According to the Islamic scholar Ibn Kathir, Arab pagans considered Allah as an unseen God who created and controlled the Universe. Pagans believed worship of humans or animals who had lucky events in their life brought them closer to God. Pre-Islamic Meccans worshiped Allah alongside a host of lesser gods and those whom they called the “daughters of Allah.”[24] Islam forbade worship of anyone or thing other than God.[25] Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a creator god or a supreme deity of their pantheon.[26][27] The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion.[26][28] According to one hypothesis, which goes back to Julius Wellhausen, Allah (the supreme deity of the tribal federation around Quraysh) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal (the supreme deity of Quraysh) over the other gods.[8] However, there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities.[8] According to that hypothesis, the Kaaba was first consecrated to a supreme deity named Allah and then hosted the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of Mecca, about a century before the time of Muhammad.[8] Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier, but nothing precise is known about this use.[8] Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities.[29][30] There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult.[29][31] No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed.[31][32] Allah is the only god in Mecca that did not have an idol.[33] Muhammad's father's name was ĘŋAbd-AllÄh meaning "the slave of AllÄh".[28]
Christianity
Arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, use the word "Allah" to mean "God".[11] The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for "God" than "Allah",[34] except Jehovah's Witnesses who add the biblical name "Jehovah" (ŲŲŲŲ) to the title "Allah".[35] Similarly, the Aramaic word for "God" in the language of Assyrian Christians is ĘŧÄlÄhÄ, or Alaha. (Even the Arabic-descended Maltese language of Malta, whose population is almost entirely Catholic, uses Alla for "God".) Arab Christians, for example, use the terms AllÄh al-ab (اŲŲŲ اŲØŖب) for God the Father, AllÄh al-ibn (اŲŲŲ اŲابŲ) for God the Son, and AllÄh ar-rÅĢá¸Ĩ al-quds (اŲŲŲ اŲØąŲØ Ø§ŲŲدØŗ) for God the Holy Spirit. (See God in Christianity for the Christian concept of God.)
Arab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to the beginning of their written works. They adopted the Muslim bismillÄh, and also created their own Trinitized bismillÄh as early as the 8th century.[36] The Muslim bismillÄh reads: "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." The Trinitized bismillÄh reads: "In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, One God." The Syriac, Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words "One God" at the end. This addition was made to emphasize the monotheistic aspect of Trinitarian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims.[36]
According to Marshall Hodgson, it seems that in the pre-Islamic times, some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the Kaaba, a pagan temple at that time, honoring Allah there as God the Creator.[37]
Some archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient pre-Islamic inscriptions and tombs made by Arab Christians in the ruins of a church at Umm el-Jimal in Northern Jordan, which initially, according to Enno Littman (1949), contained references to Allah as the proper name of God. However, on a second revision by Bellamy et al. (1985 & 1988) the 5-versed-inscription was re-translated as "(1)This [inscription] was set up by colleagues of ĘŋUlayh, (2) son of ĘŋUbaydah, secretary (3) of the cohort Augusta Secunda (4) Philadelphiana; may he go mad who (5) effaces it."[38][39][40]
The syriac word ÜÜ ÜÜ (ĘŧÄlÄhÄ) can be found in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia,[41][42] as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the Himyarite and Aksumite kingdoms[43]
In Ibn Ishaq's biography there is a Christian leader named Abd Allah ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, who was martyred in Najran in 523, as he had worn a ring that said "Allah is my lord".[44]
In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512, references to 'l-ilah (اŲاŲŲ)[45] can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic. The inscription starts with the statement "By the Help of 'l-ilah".[46][47]
In pre-Islamic Gospels, the name used for God was "Allah", as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions of the New Testament written by Arab Christians during the pre-Islamic era in Northern and Southern Arabia.[48] However most recent research in the field of Islamic Studies by Sydney Griffith et al. (2013), David D. Grafton (2014), Clair Wilde (2014) & ML Hjälm et al. (2016 & 2017) assert that "all one can say about the possibility of a pre-Islamic, Christian version of the Gospel in Arabic is that no sure sign of its actual existence has yet emerged."[49][50][51][52][53] Additionally ML Hjälm in her most recent research (2017) inserts that "manuscripts containing translations of the gospels are encountered no earlier than the year 873"[54]
Irfan ShahÃŽd quoting the 10th-century encyclopedic collection Kitab al-Aghani notes that pre-Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry "Ya La Ibad Allah" (O slaves of Allah) to invoke each other into battle.[55] According to Shahid, on the authority of 10th-century Muslim scholar Al-Marzubani, "Allah" was also mentioned in pre-Islamic Christian poems by some Ghassanid and Tanukhid poets in Syria and Northern Arabia.[56][57][58]
Islam
Main article: God in Islam
See also: Names of God in Islam
Medallion showing "Allah Jalla Jalaluhu" in the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey
Allah script outside the Old Mosque in Edirne, Turkey
In Islam, Allah is the unique, omnipotent and only deity and creator of the universe and is equivalent to God in other Abrahamic religions.[12][13] Allah is usually seen as the personal name of God, a notion which became disputed in contemporary scholarship, including the question, whether or not the word Allah should be translated as God.[59]
According to Islamic belief, Allah is the most common word to represent God,[60] and humble submission to his will, divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith.[12] "He is the only God, creator of the universe, and the judge of humankind."[12][13] "He is unique (wÄá¸Ĩid) and inherently one (aá¸Ĩad), all-merciful and omnipotent."[12] No human eyes can see Allah till the Day Of Judgement.[61] The Qur'an declares "the reality of Allah, His inaccessible mystery, His various names, and His actions on behalf of His creatures."[12] Allah doesn't depend on anything.[62] God is not a part of the Christian Trinity.[63] God has no parents and no children.[64]
The concept correlates to the Tawhid, where chapter 112 of the Qur'an (Al-'IkhlÄs, The Sincerity) reads:
[65] SAY, God is one GOD; the eternal GOD: He begetteth not, neither is He begotten: and there is not any one like unto Him.[66]
and in the Ayat ul-Kursi ("Verse of the Throne"), which is the 255th verse and the powerful verse in the longest chapter (the 2nd chapter) of the Qur'an, Al-Baqarah ("The Cow") states:
"Allah! There is no deity but Him, the Alive, the Eternal. Neither slumber nor sleep overtaketh Him.
Unto Him belongeth whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth. Who could intercede in His presence without His permission?
He knoweth that which is in front of them and that which is behind them, while they encompass nothing of His knowledge except what He wills.
His throne includeth the heavens and the earth, and He is never weary of preserving them.
He is the Sublime, the Tremendous."
In Islamic tradition, there are 99 Names of God (al-asmÄ' al-á¸ĨusnÃĄ lit. meaning: 'the best names' or 'the most beautiful names'), each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah.[13][67] All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive divine name.[68] Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are "the Merciful" (ar-Raá¸ĨmÄn) and "the Compassionate" (ar-Raá¸ĨÄĢm),[13][67] including the forementioned above al-Aá¸Ĩad ("the One, the Indivisible") and al-WÄá¸Ĩid ("the Unique, the Single").
Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase in shÄ’a llÄh (meaning 'if God wills') after references to future events.[69] Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of bi-smi llÄh (meaning 'In the name of God').[70] There are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims, including "Subá¸ĨÄna llÄh" (Glory be to God), "al-á¸Ĩamdu li-llÄh" (Praise be to God), "lÄ ilÄha illÄ llÄh" (There is no deity but God) or sometimes "lÄ ilÄha illÄ inta/ huwa" (There is no deity but You/ Him) and "AllÄhu Akbar" (God is the Most Great) as a devotional exercise of remembering God (dhikr).[71]
Silk textile panel repeating the name Allah, North Africa, 18th century
In a Sufi practice known as dhikr Allah (Arabic: Ø°ŲØą اŲŲŲ, lit. "Remembrance of God"), the Sufi repeats and contemplates the name Allah or other associated divine names to Him while controlling his or her breath.[72] For example, in countless references in the context from the Qur'an forementioned above:
1) Allah is referred to in the second person pronoun in Arabic as "Inta (Arabic: َØĨِŲْØĒ)" like the English "You", or commonly in the third person pronoun "Huwa (Arabic: َŲُŲ)" like the English "He" and uniquely in the case pronoun of the oblique form "Hu/ Huw (Arabic: ŲŲ /-Ųُ)" like the English "Him" which rhythmically resonates and is chanted as considered a sacred sound or echo referring Allah as the "Absolute Breath or Soul of Life" - Al-Nafs al-Hayyah (Arabic: اŲŲّŲØŗ اŲØŲا؊, an-Nafsu 'l-Ḥayyah) - notably among the 99 names of God, "the Giver of Life" (al-Muá¸ĨyÄĢ) and "the Bringer of Death" (al-Mumiyt);
2) Allah is neither male or female (who has no gender), but who is the essence of the "Omnipotent, Selfless, Absolute Soul (an-Nafs, اŲŲّŲØŗ) and Holy Spirit" (ar-RÅĢá¸Ĩ, اŲØąّŲØ) - notably among the 99 names of God, "the All-Holy, All-Pure and All-Sacred" (al-Quddus);
3) Allah is the originator of both before and beyond the cycle of creation, destruction and time, - notably among the 99 names of God, "the First, Beginning-less" (al-Awwal), "the End/ Beyond ["the Final Abode"]/ Endless" (al-Akhir/ al-Äkhir) and "the Timeless" (aášŖ-ášĸabÅĢr).
According to Gerhard BÃļwering, in contrast with pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism, God in Islam does not have associates and companions, nor is there any kinship between God and jinn.[60] Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control. This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God.[12]
According to Francis Edward Peters, "The Qur’Än insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God as the Jews ( 29:46). The Qur’an's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham". Peters states that the Qur'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than Yahweh, and as a universal deity, unlike Yahweh who closely follows Israelites.[73]
Pronunciation
The word AllÄh is generally pronounced [ÉÉĢËÉĢÉË(h)], exhibiting a heavy lÄm, [ÉĢ], a velarized alveolar lateral approximant, a marginal phoneme in Modern Standard Arabic. Since the initial alef has no hamza, the initial [a] is elided when a preceding word ends in a vowel. If the preceding vowel is /i/, the lÄm is light, [l], as in, for instance, the Basmala.[74]
As a loanword
English and other European languages
The history of the name AllÄh in English was probably influenced by the study of comparative religion in the 19th century; for example, Thomas Carlyle (1840) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God. However, in his biography of Muá¸Ĩammad (1934), Tor AndrÃĻ always used the term Allah, though he allows that this "conception of God" seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies.[75]
Languages which may not commonly use the term Allah to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word. For example, because of the centuries long Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, the word ojalÃĄ in the Spanish language and oxalÃĄ in the Portuguese language exist today, borrowed from Arabic inshalla (Arabic: ØĨŲ Ø´Ø§ØĄ اŲŲŲ). This phrase literally means 'if God wills' (in the sense of "I hope so").[76] The German poet Mahlmann used the form "Allah" as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity, though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey.
Some Muslims leave the name "AllÄh" untranslated in English, rather than using the English translation "God".[77] The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as personifications of the term and concept.[78][79]
Malaysian and Indonesian language
Main articles: Titular Roman Catholic Archbishop of Kuala Lumpur v. Menteri Dalam Negeri and 2010 attacks against places of worship in Malaysia
The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by A.C. Ruyl, Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 recorded "Allah" as the translation of the Dutch word "Godt".
Gereja Kalam Kebangunan Allah (Word of God Revival Church) in Indonesia. Allah is the word for "God" in the Indonesian language - even in Alkitab (Christian Bible, from اŲŲØĒاب al-kitÄb = the book) translations, while Tuhan is the word for "Lord".
Christians in Malaysia also use the word Allah for "God".
Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia use Allah to refer to God in the Malaysian and Indonesian languages (both of them standardized forms of the Malay language). Mainstream Bible translations in the language use Allah as the translation of Hebrew Elohim (translated in English Bibles as "God").[80] This goes back to early translation work by Francis Xavier in the 16th century.[81][82] The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl, Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 (revised edition from 1623 edition and 1631 Latin edition) recorded "Allah" as the translation of the Dutch word "Godt".[83] Ruyl also translated the Gospel of Matthew in 1612 into the Malay language (an early Bible translation into a non-European language,[84] made a year after the publication of the King James Version[85][86]), which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629. Then he translated the Gospel of Mark, published in 1638.[87][88]
The government of Malaysia in 2007 outlawed usage of the term Allah in any other but Muslim contexts, but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law, ruling it unconstitutional. While Allah had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries, the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of Allah by the Roman Catholic newspaper The Herald. The government appealed the court ruling, and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the hearing of the appeal. In October 2013 the court ruled in favor of the government's ban.[89] In early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia.[90] However, the use of Allah is not prohibited in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.[91][92] The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long-established and local Alkitab (Bibles) have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years.[91] Both states also do not have similar Islamic state laws as those in West Malaysia.[18]
In reaction to some media criticism, the Malaysian government has introduced a "10-point solution" to avoid confusion and misleading information.[93][94] The 10-point solution is in line with the spirit of the 18- and 20-point agreements of Sarawak and Sabah.[18]
National flags with "Allah" written on them
Flag of Iraq with the Takbir written on it
Flag of Saudi Arabia with the Islamic holy creed written on it
Flag of Afghanistan with the Shahadah written on it
Flag of Iran with "Allah" written on it
Typography
The word Allah written in different writing systems
The word AllÄh is always written without an alif to spell the Ä vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using alif to spell Ä. However, in vocalized spelling, a small diacritic alif is added on top of the shaddah to indicate the pronunciation.
In the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription,[95] God is referred to by the term اŲاŲŲ, that is, alif-lam-alif-lam-ha.[45] This presumably indicates Al-'ilÄh = "the god", without alif for Ä.
Many Arabic type fonts feature special ligatures for Allah.[96]
Since Arabic script is used to write other texts rather than Koran only, rendering lÄm + lÄm + hÄ’ as the previous ligature is considered faulty which is the case with most common Arabic typefaces.
This simplified style is often preferred for clarity, especially in non-Arabic languages, but may not be considered appropriate in situations where a more elaborate style of calligraphy is preferred. –SIL International[97]
Unicode
Unicode has a code point reserved for AllÄh, īˇ˛ = U+FDF2, in the Arabic Presentation Forms-A block, which exists solely for "compatibility with some older, legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly";[98][99] this is discouraged for new text. Instead, the word AllÄh should be represented by its individual Arabic letters, while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature.
The calligraphic variant of the word used as the Coat of arms of Iran is encoded in Unicode, in the Miscellaneous Symbols range, at code point U+262B (☫).
See also
Abdullah (name)
Allah as a lunar deity
Emblem of Iran
Ismul Azam
Names of God
Further reading
Online
Allah Qur'Än, in EncyclopÃĻdia Britannica Online, by Asma Afsaruddin, Brian Duignan, Thinley Kalsang Bhutia, Gloria Lotha, Marco Sampaolo, Matt StefonTesc, Noah Tesch and Adam Zeidan
Citations
^ "Allah". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
^ "Allah". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries.
^ "God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
^ "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as AllÄh.
^ Gardet, L. "Allah". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Online. Retrieved 2 May 2007.
^ Zeki Saritoprak (2006). "Allah". In Oliver Leaman (ed.). The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
^ Vincent J. Cornell (2005). "God: God in Islam". In Lindsay Jones (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 5 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference USA. p. 724.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. OUP USA. pp. 304–305. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1.
^ Anthony S. Mercatante & James R. Dow (2004). "Allah". The Facts on File Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend. Facts on File. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-4381-2685-2.
^ Merriam-Webster. "Allah". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
^ Jump up to:a b Columbia Encyclopedia, Allah
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g "Allah." EncyclopÃĻdia Britannica. 2007. EncyclopÃĻdia Britannica
^ Jump up to:a b c d e Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa, Allah
^ Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications 2009 ISBN 978-0-8348-2414-0 page 531
^ Sikhs target of 'Allah' attack, Julia Zappei, 14 January 2010, The New Zealand Herald. Accessed on line 15 January 2014.
^ Malaysia court rules non-Muslims can't use 'Allah', 14 October 2013, The New Zealand Herald. Accessed on line 15 January 2014.
^ Malaysia's Islamic authorities seize Bibles as Allah row deepens, Niluksi Koswanage, 2 January 2014, Reuters. Accessed on line 15 January 2014. [1]
^ Jump up to:a b c Idris Jala (24 February 2014). "The 'Allah'/Bible issue, 10-point solution is key to managing the polarity". The Star. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
^ Jump up to:a b c D.B. Macdonald. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "Ilah", Vol. 3, p. 1093.
^ Gerhard BÃļwering. Encyclopedia of the Quran, Brill, 2002. Vol. 2, p. 318
^ Columbia Encyclopaedia says: Derived from an old Semitic root referring to the Divine and used in the Canaanite El, the Mesopotamian ilu, and the biblical Elohim and Eloah, the word Allah is used by all Arabic-speaking Muslims, Christians, Jews, and other monotheists.
^ The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon – Entry for Ęŧlh Archived 18 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ Hitti, Philip Khouri (1970). History of the Arabs. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 100–101.
^ Anthony S. Mercatante & James R. Dow (2004). "Allah". The Facts on File Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend. Facts on File. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-4381-2685-2.
^ IslamKotob. Tafsir Ibn Kathir all 10 volumes. IslamKotob.
^ Jump up to:a b L. Gardet, Allah, Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. by Sir H.A.R. Gibb
^ Zeki Saritopak, Allah, The Qu'ran: An Encyclopedia, ed. by Oliver Leaman, p. 34
^ Jump up to:a b Gerhard BÃļwering, God and his Attributes, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, ed. by Jane Dammen McAuliffe
^ Jump up to:a b Jonathan Porter Berkey (2003). The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-521-58813-3.
^ Daniel C. Peterson (26 February 2007). Muhammad, Prophet of God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8028-0754-0.
^ Jump up to:a b Francis E. Peters (1994). Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. SUNY Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-7914-1875-8.
^ Irving M. Zeitlin (19 March 2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-7456-3999-4.
^ "Allah." In The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Ed. John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 1 January 2019. <http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e128>.
^ Lewis, Bernard; Holt, P. M.; Holt, Peter R.; Lambton, Ann Katherine Swynford (1977). The Cambridge history of Islam. Cambridge, Eng: University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4.
^ "ØŗبِّØŲا ØĨِŲŲَŲا ŲŲŲŲ! (Praise our God Jehovah!)". jw.org. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
^ Jump up to:a b Thomas E. Burman, Religious Polemic and the Intellectual History of the Mozarabs, Brill, 1994, p. 103
^ Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, University of Chicago Press, p. 156
^ James Bellamy, "Two Pre-Islamic Arabic Inscriptions Revised: Jabal Ramm and Umm al-Jimal", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 108/3 (1988) pp. 372–378 (translation of the inscription) "This was set up by colleagues/friends of ĘŋUlayh, the son of ĘŋUbaydah, secretary/adviser of the cohort Augusta Secunda Philadelphiana; may he go mad/crazy who effaces it."
^ Enno Littmann, Arabic Inscriptions (Leiden, 1949)
^ Daniels, Peter T. (2014). The Type and Spread of Arabic Script.
^ "The Himyarite Martyrs (text) —".
^ James of Edessa the hymns of Severus of Antioch and others." Ernest Walter Brooks (ed.), Patrologia Orientalis VII.5 (1911)., vol: 2, p. 613. pp. ÜÜ ÜÜ (Elaha).
^ Ignatius Ya`qub III, The Arab Himyarite Martyrs in the Syriac Documents (1966), Pages: 9-65-66-89
^ Alfred Guillaume& Muhammad Ibn Ishaq, (2002 [1955]). The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Isá¸ĨÄq's SÄĢrat RasÅĢl AllÄh with Introduction and Notes. Karachi and New York: Oxford University Press, page 18.
^ Jump up to:a b M. A. Kugener, "Nouvelle Note Sur L'Inscription Trilingue De ZÊbed", Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, pp. 577-586.
^ Adolf Grohmann, Arabische Paläographie II: Das Schriftwesen und die Lapidarschrift (1971), Wien: Hermann BÃļhlaus Nochfolger, Page: 6-8
^ Beatrice Gruendler, The Development of the Arabic Scripts: From the Nabatean Era to the First Islamic Century according to Dated Texts (1993), Atlanta: Scholars Press, Page:
^ Frederick Winnett V, Allah before Islam-The Moslem World (1938), Pages: 239–248
^ Sidney H Griffith, "The Gospel in Arabic: An Enquiry into Its Appearance in the First Abbasid Century", Oriens Christianus, Volume 69, p. 166. "All one can say about the possibility of a pre-Islamic, Christian version of the Gospel in Arabic is that no sure sign of its actual existence has yet emerged.
^ Grafton, David D (2014). The identity and witness of Arab pre-Islamic Arab Christianity: The Arabic language and the Bible. Christianity [...] did not penetrate into the lives of the Arabs primarily because the monks did not translate the Bible into the vernacular and inculcate Arab culture with biblical values and tradition. Trimingham's argument serves as an example of the Western Protestant assumptions outlined in the introduction of this article. It is clear that the earliest Arabic biblical texts can only be dated to the 9th century at the earliest, that is after the coming of Islam.
^ Sidney H. Griffith, The Bible in Arabic: The Scriptures of the 'People of the Book' in the Language of Islam. Jews, Christians and Muslims from the Ancient to the Modern World, Princeton University Press, 2013, pp242- 247 ff.
^ The Arabic Bible before Islam – Clare Wilde on Sidney H. Griffith's The Bible in Arabic. June 2014.
^ Hjälm, ML (2017). Senses of Scripture, Treasures of Tradition: The Bible in Arabic Among Jews, Christians and Muslims. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-34716-8.
^ Hjälm, ML (2017). Senses of Scripture, Treasures of Tradition, The Bible in Arabic among Jews, Christians and Muslims (Biblia Arabica) (English and Arabic ed.). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-34716-8. By contrast, manuscripts containing translations of the gospels are encountered no earlier then the year 873 (Ms. Sinai. N.F. parch. 14 & 16)
^ Irfan ShahÃŽd, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century, Dumbarton Oaks Trustees for Harvard University-Washington DC, page 418.
^ Irfan ShahÃŽd, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century, Dumbarton Oaks Trustees for Harvard University-Washington DC, Page: 452
^ A. Amin and A. Harun, Sharh Diwan Al-Hamasa (Cairo, 1951), Vol. 1, Pages: 478-480
^ Al-Marzubani, Mu'jam Ash-Shu'araa, Page: 302
^ Andreas GÃļrke and Johanna Pink Tafsir and Islamic Intellectual History Exploring the Boundaries of a Genre Oxford University Press in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies London ISBN 978-0-19-870206-1 p. 478
^ Jump up to:a b BÃļwering, Gerhard, God and His Attributes, Encyclopaedia of the QurĘŧÄn, Brill, 2007.
^ "The Quranic Arabic Corpus - Translation". corpus.quran.com. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
^ "112. Surah Al-Ikhlaas or At-Tauhid – NobleQuran.com". Retrieved 11 April 2021.
^ "The Quranic Arabic Corpus - Translation". corpus.quran.com. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
^ "The Quranic Arabic Corpus - Translation". corpus.quran.com. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
^ Arabic script in Unicode symbol for a Quran verse, U+06DD, page 3, Proposal for additional Unicode characters
^ Sale, G AlKoran
^ Jump up to:a b Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 978-0-87808-299-5.
^ Murata, Sachiko (1992). The Tao of Islam : a sourcebook on gender relationships in Islamic thought. Albany NY USA: SUNY. ISBN 978-0-7914-0914-5.
^ Gary S. Gregg, The Middle East: A Cultural Psychology, Oxford University Press, p.30
^ Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, Islamic Society in Practice, University Press of Florida, p. 24
^ M. Mukarram Ahmed, Muzaffar Husain Syed, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD, p. 144
^ Carl W. Ernst, Bruce B. Lawrence, Sufi Martyrs of Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond, Macmillan, p. 29
^ F.E. Peters, Islam, p.4, Princeton University Press, 2003
^ "How do you pronounce "Allah" (اŲŲŲ) correctly?". ARABIC for NERDS. 16 June 2018. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2018.
^ William Montgomery Watt, Islam and Christianity today: A Contribution to Dialogue, Routledge, 1983, p.45
^ Islam in Luce LÃŗpez Baralt, Spanish Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present, Brill, 1992, p.25
^ F. E. Peters, The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Princeton University Press, p.12
^ "Nation of Islam". www.bible.ca. Archived from the original on 13 August 2013.
^ "A history of Clarence 13X and the Five Percenters, referring to Clarence Smith as Allah". Finalcall.com. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
^ Example: Usage of the word "Allah" from Matthew 22:32 in Indonesian bible versions (parallel view) as old as 1733 Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society Sneddon, James M.; University of New South Wales Press; 2004
^ The History of Christianity in India from the Commencement of the Christian Era: Hough, James; Adamant Media Corporation; 2001
^ Wiltens, Caspar; Heurnius, Justus (1650). Justus Heurnius, Albert Ruyl, Caspar Wiltens. "Vocabularium ofte Woordenboeck nae ordre van den alphabeth, in 't Duytsch en Maleys". 1650:65. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
^ But compare: Milkias, Paulos (2011). "Ge'ez Literature (Religious)". Ethiopia. Africa in Focus. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 299. ISBN 978-1-59884-257-9. Retrieved 15 February 2018. Monasticism played a key role in the Ethiopian literary movement. The Bible was translated during the time of the Nine Saints in the early sixth century [...].
^ Barton, John (2002–12). The Biblical World, Oxford, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-27574-3.
^ North, Eric McCoy; Eugene Albert Nida ((2nd Edition) 1972). The Book of a Thousand Tongues, London: United Bible Societies.
^ "Sejarah Alkitab Indonesia / Albert Conelisz Ruyl". sejarah.sabda.org.
^ "EncyclopÃĻdia Britannica: Albert Cornelius Ruyl". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
^ Roughneen, Simon (14 October 2013). "No more 'Allah' for Christians, Malaysian court says". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
^ "BBC News - More than 300 Bibles are confiscated in Malaysia". BBC. 2 January 2014. Archived from the original on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
^ Jump up to:a b "Catholic priest should respect court: Mahathir". Daily Express. 9 January 2014. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014. Retrieved 10 January 2014.
^ Jane Moh; Peter Sibon (29 March 2014). "Worship without hindrance". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
^ "Bahasa Malaysia Bibles: The Cabinet's 10-point solution". 25 January 2014.
^ "Najib: 10-point resolution on Allah issue subject to Federal, state laws". The Star. 24 January 2014. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
^ "Zebed Inscription: A Pre-Islamic Trilingual Inscription In Greek, Syriac & Arabic From 512 CE". Islamic Awareness. 17 March 2005.
^
Arabic fonts and Mac OS X Archived 10 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Programs for Arabic in Mac OS X Archived 6 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Scheherazade New". SIL International. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
^ The Unicode Consortium. FAQ - Middle East Scripts Archived 1 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Unicode Standard 5.0, p.479, 492" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
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